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London
The capital city of England and the United Kingdom lies on the River Thames, which winds through the city. Its many bridges are a famous sight. The oldest is London Bridge, originally made of wood but rebuilt in stone in 1217. The most distinctive is Tower Bridge, which was designated to blend in with the nearby Tower of London.
The National Portrait Gallery stands just behind the National Gallery. It contains portraits of British monarchs and authentic portraits of men and women who have contributed to its making.
The idea of the Tate Gallery took shape in 1890. In that year Henry Tate's gift of 65 paintings and 2 sculptures, almost all of them the work of Victorian contemporaries, was offered to the nation, but a gallery had still to be built to house them. When opened seven years later the Tate Gallery consisted of 8 rooms and was intended as a collection of contemporary British painting only. In the intervening years the scope of the collection has been transformed as well as enlarged. Instead of being a collection of nineteenth ~ century British painting it has become the national collection of British painting of all periods, in addition to this the national collection of modem foreign painting and of modem sculpture, both British and foreign. In scale the collection has grown beyond recognition. Instead of 70 works the collection has contains nearly four thousand British paintings and drawings, over three hundred modern foreign paintings, and over three hundred and sixty pieces of modem sculpture. The growth of the building has also been impressive: the eight original galleries built by Tate have now become 34, including the more than 300 foot long Sculpture Gallery, and The Tate is now the largest picture gallery in the British Commonwealth.
Although it is the finest and most representative collection there is of the British school, it has serious gaps. It contains, for instance, no first-class example of the work of Stubbs. On the other hand there are certain masters which the Tate represents supremely well. The chief of these is Turner. By the greatest of all British painters the Gallery possesses more than 300 paintings and sketches. William Blake and G.F. Watts are particularly well represented.
Here are some other interesting museums and galleries of London: the Victoria and Albert Museum, which covers most, if not all, of the artistic activities of man, such as architecture and sculpture, ceramics, engraving, illustrations and design, metal work, painting, textiles and wood work. The Wallace Collection, a magnificent collection of pictures, furniture, armour and objects of art. The Science Museum, which exhibits machinery, scientific instruments and apparatus for scientific research and for educational purposes.
One of the places of interest most visitors to St. Petersburg want to see is the Hermitage State Museum. It's one of the most outstanding museums of the world culture and art. The Hermitage was founded in 1764. Originally the first paintings were housed in the Winter Palace. Later the other buildings: the Small Hermitage, the Old Hermitage and the New Hermitage were built. The Museum now occupies five buildings. The Hermitage contains art collections of all ages. There is the richest collection in the world of Oriental art and culture. There are wonderful collections from China, India, ancient Greece and Rome. West-European paintings are widely represented in the Hermitage too. The total number of paintings of the West-European masters is 7.5 thousand. They include world-famous works by Leonardo da Vincy, Raphael, Rembrand, Rubens and others. Special department of the museum are devoted to the history of culture and art of Russia. The Hermitage is also famous for its outstanding collections of applied art: tapestries, furniture, metal work, silver and jewelry.
16.Public and private health service
The United States today has evolved a mixed system of private and government responsibility for health care. Workers with their families, are covered by group health insurance plans, paid jointly by the employer and the employee or by the employee alone. Under the most common type of health plan, the individual pays monthly premium or fee. In return, the insurance company covers most major medical costs, except for a minimum amount, called the deductible, which the employee pays each year before insurance coverage begins.
Although most families have some form of private health insurance, some citizens cannot afford such insurance. These people receive medical coverage through two major social programs. Medicaid is a joint federal-state program, which funds medical care for the poor people. The requirements for receiving Medicaid and the scope of the medical care available vary widely from state to state. Medicaid has greatly increased the use of health care services by the poor. Medicare is a federal program, which pays a substantial part of the medical bills of Americans who are over 65 years or disabled. Medicare is not a poverty program, but is rather a form of federally administered and supported health insurance. Medicare now pays according to the patient’s diagnosis. This provides an incentive for the hospitals to keep costs down.
In addition to controlling costs, the U.S. confronts the problem of those who cannot afford private health insurance and yet are not eligible for either Medicaid or Medicare. These may be individuals who are unemployed for a time, families close to the poverty line or those living in remote rural areas. Such individuals can go to public hospitals, where they can always receive treatment in an emergency, bur they often fail to obtain routine medical care that could prevent later chronic or serious illness.
Self-employed private physicians who charge a fee for each patient visit are the foundation of medical practice in the U.S. most physicians have a contractual relationship with one or more hospitals in the community and send their patients to this hospital. Some medical doctors are on salary. Salaried physicians may work as hospital staff members or residents, who often are still in training. Physicians often prefer to practice in urban areas or comfortable suburbs. As a result, many city areas and rural communities still lack sufficient physicians and adequate medical facilities.
The Acts setting up the National Health Service in Britain came into force in 1948. Originally it was free but certain charges were introduced later and show a definite tendency to grow.
The cost of health and welfare services in Britain is met from general taxation, local rates and from charges paid by patients. There are charges for prescriptions, for dental treatment, for some other health services. The public is free to use the service, or any independent part of it as it please.
The problem of drug abuse, the use of drugs for pleasure, is common in many countries, especially among young people, but using drugs is illegal in overwhelming majority of them. Most teenagers try drugs before they leave school, and many of them use drugs regularly, may be easily obtained from pushers on the streets, in schools, at nightclubs and elsewhere.
The government could put a tax on drugs, as is the case with tobacco and alcohol, and the money could be used to help pay for medical treatment for people who become addicted. But many people are scared by the increasing use of drugs and do not believe that legalizing them is a solution.
16. Medicine. Health service. Drug problems.
The Akts setting ut the National Health Service in Britain came into force in 1948. The obeject of the NHS Act was the establishment of a comprehensive health servise disigned to secure improvment in the phisical and mental health of the people and the prevention, diagnosis and treatment of illness. The introduction of the new health service didn’t mean a complite break with the past. All that was good of the existing service was absorded into a new scheme. The NHS made it possible that the benefit once available only to insured person ot those who could afford to pay for them, or as a form of charity, became available to everyone. Originally it was free. The service provided by the NHS fall into 3 main groups: !. the geberal practitioners service;2. the hospital a’specialists service; 3. the local health and welfare authority service. The cost of health and welfare service in Britain is met general taxation, local rates and from charges paid by the patients. There are charges from prescriptions, for dental treatment, for some other service. The cost of prescriptions has risen so sharply of late that people who need them most often can’t afoord to by medicines. The public is free to use the service. Unlike the UK, where people don’t have to pay for medical treatment, the USA doesn’t have a NHS. Most people have health insurance to pay for their medical care, which is either paid for by themselves or by their employer. People can get insurence frrom regular insurence company, or they can pay to become members of a HMO (Health Maintenance Org.). The government does help to pay for some medical care for prople who are on low incomes through the MediCaid system, and for old people through the MediCare sustem. But some people can’t afford insurance but are not poor enough to get government help, such individuals can go to public hospitals, where they always receive treatment an emergency. On the US a phisian is among the bestpaid professions and physicians and hospitals also must buy malpractice insurance to protect themselves in case they be sued for neghgence by pationts.
17.Prejudies. Totalitarian Religious Cults.
Superstitions are beliefs that certain things or events will bring good or bad luck. Many people believe that luck plays an important part in their lives, and they wish somebody luck (=good luck) in many situations, e.g. before an exam or when they get married.
There are many well-known omens (=signs) of bad luck, some of which have a religious origin. The number 13 is considered unlucky because there were 13 people at the Last Supper. Tall buildings often do not have a 13th floor;
All of us have some across prejudices. But there are some groups of people who often suffer from prejudices. For example, colored people, old people whose behavior and habits are not like ours, couples where a woman is older than a man or couples with big difference in age (when husband is 50 and a wife is 20).
There are a lot of people in world who have racial prejudies. They don’t like people of other nations, and always think that their nations are more clever, more intelligent, and more important than others. So they treat people of the other race like dogs. They can even use them like slaves.
Smth. Like that happens to Chinese when they come to America to work. Sometimes people think that America is a free country with equal rights. But it is a mistake. China is a rather small country for so many people who live and work there. So they always have problems with places for living and work places. In America the Chinatown has always been a heaven for illegals and sweatshops but things have taken a very bad turn. The Chinese can’t earn a living because it’s common for sweatshops to withhold salaries from workers who have no government agency to turn to for help and anyone who complains about wages and conditions will be deported. They break they lives, because they can’t earn a living, can’t demand other work and living conditions and they can’t earn enough to come back to China. They can’t change anything.
There were statues and busts of Mao in every Chinese town. Mao’s face was in every institution, Mao’s red books of citations on sale in every hotel and museum. This was the extreme of his socialism, of his total central control of all life by party and state, of the cult of personality he founded.
17.PREJUDICES. TOTALITARIAN RELIGIOUS CULTS.
There are a lot of prejudices, such as: sexual, racial or religious prejudices.
Probably, Dr. Martin Luther King, Jr. was the brightest representative of struggle against racial prejudices. The 1950s and 60s were years of great struggle for black Americans against segregation. Thanks to Dr. King and the civil rights movement, black Americans and other minorities have won many rights.
As for a sexual prejudice, it is a big problem too. Man's chauvinism is frequently shown on roads. A lot of men behave roughly if they see woman driving the car.
And as for religious prejudices, there are many religions in the world, and every representative of his religion thinks that exactly his religion is true.
There are also many different conflicts between religion's representatives in the world, for example discrimination between Catholics and Protestants.
If you are Protestant you live in a Protestant area and you go to a Protestant school, and if you are Catholic you live in a Catholic area and you go to a Catholic school. There is such prejudice because children are just brought up in that way, they have no contact with each other. When you first meet people, they have to establish very quickly whether you are Catholic or Protestant and there are quite a lot of ways of doing it without directly asking. There are so many little clues, names and surnames. If you've got an Irish surname the chances are that you are Catholic, if you've got a Scottish name than you are probably Protestant. Protestants associate Catholics with some sort of malevolent, despicable characteristic: their eyes are too close together, they don't work hard enough, and they are untrustworthy. There are a lot of cases when parents even don't attend the wedding of their child who marries person of other religion. But it's not only a religious matter; it's political, economical, historical and colonial matters. Protestants are in the majority in Northern Ireland, they are the ruling class. There is a lot of unemployment in Northern Ireland, but most of the good jobs belong to Protestant.
Nowadays there are also such extremist religious cults, as the Moonies or the Unification Church. The Sun Myung Moon is the founder of this cult.
There is a well-detailed system of recruiting of new adepts in the Unification Church. They seldom collect the staff among streetwise people, preferring them to respectable, diffident youngsters. The Moonies subject recruits to consecutive training. They don't leave youngsters even for a moment; they induce them to work, listen to lectures, pray and sing the hymns every day. There are certain rules for the adepts, such as: low-calorie meals, constant lack of the sleep, a collective chanting; strictness in appearance and behavior; the Moonies also discourage newcomers from talking to other newcomer. They convert recruits into cultists by programming every minute of their waking hours until they are brought under complete mind control and fall into a trance.
Technique of deprogrammer needs a lot of time and efforts, and it is important to keep a good relationship with programmed person and not antagonize him about his Unification Church affiliation. You should induce this person to think for himself again.
18.At a meeting
Meetings are necessary. Meetings are held to discuss business, to explore ideas and to convey information. Preparation is essential. Identify the specific items that u want the meeting to consider. Arrange them in sequence in the agenda, allocating a certain amount of time to each, and giving priority to those that are important.
Begin the meeting by standing its purpose. Everyone should have a clear understanding of why its being held.
As u approach each item on the agenda briefly introduce it. Keep the discussion relevant. Don’t allow people to jump ahead to the next item or go to back to points that have already been dealt with. After each item has been discussed, briefly summarize the conclusions that have been reached. At the end of meeting give an overall summary.
Begin the meeting on time. Don’t wait for latecomers. Avoid answering questions. Try not to get involved in arguments.
Finally, finish the meeting on time. Remind participants that there is a limited amount of time left, to keep their final contributions as brief as possible.
An agenda informs people attending the meeting of the meeting’s purpose. Any agenda must include the date of the meeting. The agenda for a short-in house meeting may simply list numbered topics to be discussed. The agenda for a longer meeting may be broken down into days and hours and include sites of individual sessions.
The minutes of a meeting are a written record of the business discussed and transacted at the meeting. Some companies tape record their meetings, and the tapes are transcribed and summarized.
Read the agenda before the meeting and keep it with u to serve as a guide. Make sure u know the names of all people who might speak. Sit close to the chairperson so that u are near the center of business.
Soon after the meeting adjourns, transcribe your notes into a first draft.. Organize the draft by topic or time sequence.
18. At a meeting.
Meetings are necessary. No organization of any size can proceed for long with each member acting independently. Meetings are held to discuss business, to explore ideas and to convey information.
Meetings are usually seen as a waste of time but they are in fact one of the manager's most useful means of communication, whether with subordinates or colleagues - provided they are conducted effectively.
We should begin the meeting by stating its purpose. We should try to keep the discussion relevant. We should watch out for speakers going off on tangents and for people talking at cross-purposes. Begin the meeting on time. Don't wait for the newcomers. When they arrive briefly tell them what conclusions have been reached. This will bring them up to date and may encourage them to be more punctual in future.
As the meeting progresses, we must make sure that everyone understands what is being talked about. After each item we should summarize the conclusions that have been reached. We should encourage the silent and control the over-talkative. Respond positively to suggestions. These are easier to dismiss than facts or opinions but they are essential if new ideas are to be generated. Those who dismiss them should be invited to put forward new suggestions.
The chairperson must avoid answering questions. It's better to pass them on to others. If disagreement becomes heated and it becomes a clash of personalities rather than ideas then we refuse it or draw a neutral participant into the discussion. We also should finish the meeting on time.
An agenda informs people attending a meeting of the meeting's purpose and the business to be covered. An agenda is designed to make sure the topics that need to be discussed are discussed and any extraneous business is left for another time. By following the agenda closely, the chairperson of a meeting can ensure that the meeting is purposeful and productive. Any agenda must include the date of the meeting. The agenda for sales conference or stockholder's meeting may be broken down into days and hours and include sites for individual sessions.
The minutes of the meeting are a written record of the business discussed and transacted at the meeting. Some companies tape record their meetings, and the tapes are subscribed and summarized. The person who records all events and decisions (secretary) must follow next rules:
1) to read the agenda before the meeting and keep it as a guide
2) to know the names of all people who might speak
3) to use outline form of number of headings, mark up notes with arrows and underlines
4) to record major decisions or resolutions made by the attendees. Formal resolutions must be recorded word for word
Soon after the meeting adjourns, secretary transcribes notes into a first draft. We organize the draft by topic or time sequence, whichever seems more logical. A final draft must be given to a chairperson or supervisor for signing. We keep a copy of the minutes on file, clipped to the agenda and handouts for the meeting.
e.g. company may gather to discuss a number of issues concerning the well being and the health or safety of employees. Here is an example of such meeting. There were representatives of the various departments in the company at that meeting. Chairman declared the meeting open, proposed an agenda and asked for additions or amendments. The attendees adopted the agenda as it stood. One of the clerks offered to fix the time limit for the report at 10 minutes and allowed each speaker 5 minutes for discussion in debate. The majority seconded this motion. The first reporter took the floor. After she had finished, some of those present had a number of questions to ask. Another reporter proposed that the meeting adopt a resolution which outlined a number of measures to improve the situation with the canteen as there were some complaints. The resolution met with stiff opposition and many amendments were proposed. Then the chairman proposed that the committee work out a resolution later and adjourned the meeting due to the official opening of the new factory extension. But the Committee met later and drew up a new resolution that incorporated all the questions discussed and all the motions made.
At the meetings attendees may vote, take the floor, second smb's motion or reject motions, to nominate or to take a ballot.
18. At a meeting
Meetings are necessary. No organization of any size can proceed for long with each member acting independently. There are many different types of meetings. If the meeting is held to discuss business it is called a discussion meeting, the meeting held to explore ideas is called a brainstorming meeting. And if you want to convey information you call an information meeting. The meeting may also be public, that means anyone can attend it or closed, which is held behind closed doors. Meetings are often seen as a waste of time, but they are in fact one of a manager´s most useful means of communication, whether with subordinates or colleagues – provided they are conducted effectively. This means having a clear idea of the purpose of the meeting and ensuring that the meeting addresses itself to this purpose. It is necessary to conduct a meeting in a certain way. First of all, the chairperson declares the meeting open. He proposes to take the minutes of the last meeting as read. Then he reads the items on the agenda, and if there are no additions or amendments to the proposed agenda, the chairperson announces that the agenda stands. After that the regulations as to procedure are adopted. Next, the chairperson gives the floor to the speakers for the reports on items of the agenda. In the end of each speech there is time for discussion, and those present ask speaker the questions. When the agenda is concluded the meeting adopts a resolution that incorporates all the questions discussed and all the motions made. It is unable to hold a meeting without a chairperson. A chairperson is concerned with two things: one is the subject that is being discussed; the other is the people who are discussing it. The first requires giving attention to appropriate procedures, the second using the leadership skills. The chairperson begins the meeting by stating it´s purpose. Everyone should have a clear understanding of why it is being held. The chairperson should keep the discussion relevant and prevent jumping ahead to the next item or going back to points that have already been discussed. As the meeting progresses, the chairperson makes sure that everyone understands what is being talked about and what is being said about it, he also provides occasional summaries. In dealing with people the chairperson´s main concern is that everyone with a contribution to make makes it. This means encouraging the silent and controlling the over-talkative.
19.Family relations. Generation Gap
A family may include parents and their children, grandparents, aunts, uncles and cousins, as well as more distant relatives. But when British and American people use the word family they often mean only a mother, father and their children.
The problem of the relationship between generations is the problem of the relationship in a family, between the old and young generation mostly.
The main problem of the most families is the problem when the young and the adult don’t understand each other, the so-called “gen.gap” that is a gap in views between parents and teenagers. The root of the problem is the difference in years. Children want to be independent, prefer to make their own mistakes especially they become older. But their parents still think they are children and continue to treat them if they were small. Sometimes teenagers run away from their parents because they need freedom in choosing clothes, friends and music.