Шпаргалка по "Английскому языку"

        However, 20% of adults, about 40 million people, have very limited skills in reading and writing, and 4%, about 8 million, are illiterate (= cannot read or write). Since control over education is mostly at local level, its quality varies greatly from place to place. There are many reasons for this but the most important is money. In general, the people who live in city centres tend to be very poor. Those with more money prefer to live in the suburbs. People in the suburbs pay higher taxes, and so the schools there have more money to spend. Crime and violence are also serious problems in the inner cities, with some students taking weapons to school. In such a situation it is hard to create a good atmosphere for learning.

Public or private education

        Most educational institutions in the US are public (=run by the government) but there are some private schools which students pay a lot of money to attend. Many private schools have a high reputation and parents send their children there so that they will have advantages later in life. Opposition to private schools is not as strong as it is in Britain: individual choice is important in the US, and so the right of people to buy a different education for their children is not questioned. Public or private education is much less of an issue than the difference in quality between inner city and suburban schools. Most parents who have money are likely to spend it not by sending their children to private schools but by moving to a suburb where the public schools are good.

Points of conflict

        Americans agree on the importance of education being available to all, but there is disagreement about what should be taught. The greatest area of conflict is the place of religious or moral education. Commonly debated topics include whether teachers should be allowed to say prayers, whether students should learn about sex, and whether it is right to hit students as a punishment. Sometimes the debate ends up in court, and courts usually say that no student should be forced to do something that is against his or her beliefs.

        Education for people who come to the US from other countries is also much discussed. In states like California where there are many people whose first language is not English, there is debate over what language should be used in schools. Some people believe that children have the right to an education in their own language; others say that people who come to the US have a responsibility to learn English and cannot expect special treatment. At university level some people object to the high numbers of foreign students, especially in science and related fields. But since relatively few Americans study these subjects the universities are glad to take international students.

        In spite of occasional conflict, most Americans agree that a good education gives people the best chance of getting a good job and of improving their social position.

Universities and Colleges

Going to university in Britain

        After school many British students go to university. They apply to several universities through UCAS (Universities and Colleges Admission Service) and receive offers of a place on condition that they achieve certain grades in their A levels.

        Most universities receive some money from the state. The oldest and most famous are Oxford and Cambridge. Other much respected universities include London, Durham and St Andrew's. Some universities such as Birmingham and Manchester are called redbrick universities because they were built in the 19th century with brick rather than stone. The newer universities have their buildings grouped together on a campus.

        A first degree, which is usually an honours degree, generally takes three years. Most courses end with exams called finals. Results are given as classes (=grades): a first is the highest class, seconds are often split between upper second and lower second, and below that is a third. Graduates may add the letters BA (Bachelor of Arts) or BSc (Bachelor of Science) after their name. Some graduates go on to study for a further degree, often a master's degree or a doctorate.

        Students in Britain formerly had their tuition fees paid by the state and received a government grant to help pay their living expenses. Now, they receive only a loan towards their expenses, and from 1999 most will also have to pay 1 000 a year towards tuition fees. The new arrangements have caused a great deal of concern both among students and among members of the public who believe that education should be free.

Going to college in the US

        Americans talk about 'going to college' even if the institution they attend is a university. To Americans the phrase 'going to university' sounds pretentious. Most colleges offer classes only for undergraduate students studying for a bachelor's degree. Community colleges offer two-year courses leading to an associate's degree, and afterwards students transfer to a different college or university to continue their studies. Universities are larger than colleges and also offer courses for graduate students who study in graduate school. Many universities also have separate professional schools, e.g. a medical school or a law school.

        American high school students who want to study at a college or university have to take a standardized test, e.g. the SAT (Scholastic Aptitude Test) or the ACT (American College Test). Students from countries outside the US who are not native speakers of English must also take the TOEFL (Test of English as a Foreign Language). Each college or university decides on the minimum score it will accept, though test scores are never the only factor taken into account. Students apply direct to between three and six colleges in their last year of high school. Each college has its own application form and most include a question for which the student must write an essay. The student also has to send a transcript (=an official list of all the subjects studied and the grades received) and letters of reference.

        There are many private colleges and universities but most students choose a public institution because the costs are lower. All universities charge tuition, and students pay extra for room and board. Prices range from a few hundred dollars a year to well over $25 000 at some private colleges. Students whose families cannot afford to pay the full amount apply for financial aid. Many students receive a financial aid package which may be a combination of grants from the government, a scholarship, a student loan and work-study (= a part-time job at the college).

        The most famous universities are those in the Ivy League, including Harvard and Yale, but many others have good reputations. Large universities often put most emphasis on research. Smaller colleges tend to concentrate on teaching undergraduates, and many students prefer these colleges because they offer smaller classes and more personal attention from teachers.

Teaching and learning

        The US academic year may be divided into two semesters of about 15 weeks or three quarters of about 10 weeks each. Students take courses in a variety of subjects, regardless of their main subject, because the aim of the liberal arts curriculum is to produce well-rounded people with good critical skills. At the end of their sophomore (= second) year students choose a major (= main subject) and sometimes a minor (= additional subject) which they study for the next two years. Students take four or five courses each semester from the course catalog. Courses may consist mainly of lectures or may include discussion sections or lab sessions.

        Students are given grades at the end of each course. The highest grade is A; the lowest is F, which means that the student has failed the course and will not get credit for taking it. To check a student's overall progress, the university calculates a grade point average (GPA). Students who finish their degree with a high GPA may be awarded Latin honours, of which the highest is summa cum laude.

        At most British universities the academic year is divided into three terms. Students study a main subject throughout their degree course, which is usually a mix of compulsory courses and electives. Teaching methods vary between universities. Most students have lectures and seminars (= discussion groups) and there are practicals for those doing a science subject. At some universities students have individual tutorials or supervisions.

        In Britain a professor is the person in charge of a department or a senior member of staff. Other teaching and research staff are called lecturers. Junior academic staff may be called research associates. In the US most people who teach at colleges or universities and have a doctorate are addressed as professor. Full professors are senior to associate professors, assistant professors and instructors. Graduate students working towards a higher degree may teach undergraduate courses at larger universities. These grad students are called TAs (teaching assistants). In return, TAs do not have to pay for their own tuition and get a small amount of money to live on.

The Ivy League

        US universities and colleges organize themselves into conferences, groups of institutions that are near each other and do certain activities, such as sports, together. The most highly respected of these groups is the Ivy League in the north-eastern US. Its most famous members are Harvard and Yale Universities, whose fierce rivalry in various sports is like that between Oxford and Cambridge Universities in Britain. The other members of the Ivy League are Columbia University, Cornell University, Dartmouth College, Brown University, Princeton University, and the University of Pennsylvania. The name Ivy League comes from the ivy that grows on the old buildings of the colleges.

        Ivy League institutions have a very high academic reputation, and many more people want to attend them than are able to do so. They are very expensive, with tuition costing well over $20000 at some universities, although scholarships are available to help students who cannot pay for themselves. People who are educated in the Ivy League have a good chance of finding a well-paid job, and many political leaders have been to Ivy League universities. Many other colleges and universities in the US offer a high standard of education but none has the status and prestige of the Ivy League institutions.

Student Life

        The popular image of student life is of young people with few responsibilities enjoying themselves and doing very little work. This is often not true. Many older people now study at college or university, sometimes on a part-time basis while having a job and looking after a family. These students are often highly motivated and work very hard.

        Younger students are often thought to be lazy and careless about money but this situation is changing. In Britain reduced government support for higher education means that students can no longer rely on having their expenses paid for them. Formerly, students received a grant towards their living expenses. Now most can only get a loan which has to be paid back. From 1999 they will also have to pay 1000 towards tuition fees. In the US students already have to pay for tuition and room and board. Many get a financial aid package which may include grants, scholarships and loans. The fear of having large debts places considerable pressure on students and many take part-time jobs during the term and work full-time in the vacations.

        Many students in Britain go to a university away from their home town. They usually live in a hall of residence for their first year, and then move into digs (= a rented room in a private house) or share a house with other students. They may go back home during vacations, but after they graduate most leave home for good. In the US too, many students attend colleges some distance from where their parents live. They may live on campus in one of the dorms (=halls), or off campus in apartments and houses which they share with housemates. Some students, especially at larger universities, join a fraternity or sorority, a social group usually with its own house near the campus. Fraternities and sororities often have names which are combinations of two or three letters of the Greek alphabet. Some people do not have a good opinion of them because they think that students who are members spend too much time having parties. Many US colleges and universities encourage an atmosphere of political correctness to try to help students get on together.

        In Britain the interests of students are represented by a student's union which liaises with the university on academic matters, arranges social events and provides advice to students. Individual unions are affiliated with (= linked to) the NUS. The student union building is usually the centre of student life and has a bar and common room, and often a restaurant and shops. British universities have a wide range of societies, clubs and social activities including sports, drama and politics. One of the highlights (= main events) of the year is rag week, a week of parties and fund-raising activities in support of various charities.

        Especially in their first year, US students spend a lot of time on social activities. One of the most important celebrations, especially at universities which place a lot of emphasis on sports, is homecoming. Many alumni (= former students) return to their alma mater (= college) for a weekend in the autumn to watch a football game. During homecoming weekend there are also parties and dances, and usually a parade.

        When social activities take up too much time, students skip lectures (= miss them) or cut class (AmE) and take incompletes (AmE), which means they have to finish their work after the vacation. In the US this has the effect of lowering their course grades, but most US universities expect this behaviour from students and do little to stop it. Students are thought to be old enough to make their own decisions about how hard they work and to accept the consequences. A few students drop out (AmE flunk out) but the majority try hard to get good grades and a good degree.

*homecoming – AmE (in the US colleges and universities) an event held each year, usually in the autumn, when former students return for special celebrations and social events. These include the homecoming game of football, the homecoming parade (= procession) and the homecoming dance. An attractive and popular girl is also elected as the homecoming queen.

* summa cum laude – with highest praise