According to Moskowitz & Hayman once a teacher loses control of
their classroom, it becomes increasingly more difficult for them to
regain that control.Also, research from Berliner and Brophy & Good
shows that the time a teacher has to take to correct misbehavior caused
by poor classroom management skills results in a lower rate of academic
engagement in the classroom.From the student’s perspective, effective
classroom management involves clear communication of behavioral and
academic expectations as well as a cooperative learning environment.[25,
P.9].
Classroom management is closely linked to issues of motivation , discipline
and respect. Methodologies remain a matter f passionate debate amongst teachers; approaches vary depending on
the beliefs a teacher holds regarding educational psychology. A large part of traditional classroom management involves behavior modification, although many teachers see using behavioral approaches alone as overly simplistic. Many teachers establish rules and procedures at the beginning of the school year. According to Graves rules give students concrete direction to ensure
that our expectation becomes a reality.[17, P.49].
They also try to be consistent in enforcing these rules and procedures.
Many would also argue for positive consequences when rules are followed,
and negative consequences when rules are broken. There are newer perspectives on classroom management
that attempt to be holistic. One example is affirmation teaching, which attempts to guide students toward success by helping
them see how their effort pays off in the classroom. It relies upon
creating an environment where students are successful asa result of their own efforts.By creating this type of environment,
students are much more likely to want to do well. Ideally, this transforms
a classroom into a community of well-behaved and self-directed learners.
Corporal punishment
Until recently, corporal punishment was widely used as a means of controlling disruptive behavior but
it is now no longer fashionable, though it is still advocated in some
contexts by people such as James Dobson.
Rote discipline
Also known as "lines," rote discipline is a negative sanction used for behavior management. It involves assigning a disorderly student sentences or the classroom
rules to write repeatedly. Among the many types of classroom management
approaches, it is very commonly used.
Preventative techniques
Preventative approaches to classroom management involve creating a
positive classroom community with mutual respect between teacher and
student. Teachers using the preventative approach offer warmth, acceptance,
and support unconditionally - not based on a student’s behavior. Fair
rules and consequences are established and students are given frequent
and consistent feedback regarding their behavior.
One way to establish this kind of classroom environment is through
the development and use of a classroom contract. The contract should
be created by both students and the teacher. In the contract, students
and teachers decide and agree on how to treat one another in the classroom.
The group also decides on and agrees to what the group will do should
there be a violation of the contract. Rather than a consequence, the
group should decide on a way to fix the problem through either class
discussion, peer mediation, counseling, or by one on one conversations
leading to a solution to the situation.
Preventative techniques also involve the strategic use of praise and
rewards to inform students about their behavior rather than as a means
of controlling student behavior. In order to use rewards to inform students
about their behavior, teachers must emphasize the value of the behavior
that is rewarded and also explain to students the specific skills they
demonstrated to earn the reward. Teachers should also encourage student
collaboration in selecting rewards and defining appropriate behaviors
that will earn rewards.
The Good Behavior Game
The Good Behavior Game (GBG) is a "classroom-level
approach to behavior management" that was originally used in 1969 by Barrish,
Saunders, and Wolf. The Game entails the class earning access to a reward
or losing a reward, given that all members of the class engage in some
type of behavior (or did not exceed a certain amount of undesired behavior).
The GBG can be used to increase desired behaviors (e.g., question asking)
or to decrease undesired behaviors (e.g., out of seat behavior). The
GBG has been used with preschoolers as well as adolescents; however
most applications have been used with typically developing students
(i.e., those without developmental disabilities). In addition, the Game
"is usually popular with and acceptable to students and teachers."
Discipline with Dignity
According to its founders, Discipline with Dignity
is one of the most widely practiced behavior management philosophies
in the world. Founded by Dr. McLeod, and Dr. Allen Mendler, the program is utilized in more than 12 different countries. Discipline
with Dignity provides an in-depth flexible approach for effective school
and classroom management. With a strong focus on developing responsibility,
it is a comprehensive, practical program that leads to improved student
behavior through responsible thinking, cooperation, mutual respect,
and shared decision-making.[24, P.63].
Tools for Teaching
Tools for Teaching is a classroom management method created and taught by Fred Jones
on speaking tours and in the eponymous book series
Positive Classrooms
Positive Classrooms developed by Dr. McLeod, sees positive classroom management as the
result of four factors: how teachers regard their students (spiritual
dimension), how they set up the classroom environment (physical dimension),
how skillfully they teach content (instructional dimension), and how
well they address student behavior (managerial dimension).
Assertive Discipline
Assertive discipline is another systematic approach of classroom management. Lee and Marlene
Canter discuss the ideas behind this approach in several published books.
Discipline without Stress, Punishments or Rewards
The most significant characteristics of DWS are that it is totally
noncoercive (but not permissive) and takes the opposite approach to
Skinnerian behaviorism that relies on external sources for reinforcement.
Wragg, also
describes classroom management as a process consisting of key tasks
that teachers must attend to in order to develop an environment conducive
to learning. These tasks include:
(1) organizing the physical environment,
(2) establishing rules and routines,
(3) developing caring relationships,
(4) implementing engaging instruction
(5) preventing and responding to discipline problems.
Classroom management as time management
In their introductory text on teaching, Martin, N. K., Yin, Z., &
Mayall. Introduction to teaching: Becoming a professional
(3rd ed.). Upper Saddle River, NJ: Pearson Education, Inc. explain classroom
management in terms of time management. The goal of classroom management,
is to not only maintain order but to optimize student learning. They
divide class time into four overlapping categories, namely allocated
time, instructional time, engaged time, and academic learning time.[22,
P.39].
Allocated time
Allocated time is the total time allotted for teaching, learning,
and routine classroom procedures like attendance and announcements.
Allocated time is also what appears on a student's schedule, for example
"Introductory Algebra: 9:50-10:30 a.m." or "Fine Arts
1:15-2:00 p.m."
Instructional time
Instructional time is what remains after routine classroom procedures
are completed. That is to say, instructional time is the time wherein
teaching and learning actually takes place. Teachers may spend two or
three minutes taking attendance, for example, before their instruction
begins.
Engaged time
Engaged time is also called time on task. During engaged time, students
are participating actively in learning activities—asking and responding
to questions, completing worksheets and exercises, preparing skits and
presentations, etc.
Academic learning time
Academic learning time occurs when students 1) participate actively
and 2) are successful in learning activities. Effective classroom management
maximizes academic learning time.
Common mistakes in classroom behavior management In
an effort to maintain order in the classroom, sometimes teachers can
actually make the problems worse. Therefore, it is important to consider
some of the basic mistakes commonly made when implementing classroom
behavior management strategies. For example, a common mistake made by
teachers is to define the problem behavior by how it looks without considering
its function.
Interventions are more likely to be effective when they are individualized
to address the specific function of the problem behavior. Two students
with similar looking misbehavior may require entirely different intervention
strategies if the behaviors are serving different functions. Teachers
need to understand that they need to be able to change the ways they
do things from year to year, as the children change. Not every approach
works for every child. Teachers need to learn to be flexible. Another
common mistake is for the teacher to become increasingly frustrated
and negative when an approach is not working.
The teacher
may raise his or her voice or increase adverse consequences in an effort
to make the approach work. This type of interaction may impair the teacher-student
relationship. Instead of allowing this to happen, it is often better
to simply try a new approach.
Inconsistency in expectations and consequences is an additional mistake
that can lead to dysfunction in the classroom. Teachers must be consistent
in their expectations and consequences to help ensure that students understand that rules will be enforced. To avoid this, teachers should
communicate expectations to students clearly and be sufficiently committed
to the classroom management procedures to enforce them consistently.
Teachers must
be consistent in their expectations and consequences to help ensure
that students understand that rules will be enforced. To avoid this,
teachers should communicate expectations to students clearly and be
sufficiently committed to the classroom management procedures to enforce
them consistently.
Some English teachers face many difficulties and
problems in public high
schools. One of the most significant problems is
disruptive students and how to control them. Some of them come late
to class, sleep in class, and often do not do their homework. A few
do not participate at all in class activities. In addition, they sometimes
engage in very disruptive behavior.
I have found that most disruptive students seem to
lack both intrinsic and
extrinsic motivation. For one thing, they sometimes
have very bad indirect
information about the difficulty of learning English
from their brothers, sisters,
cousins,. Many of these disruptive students have
their own social problems that stand as a barrier against successful
learning.Underwood states that “teachers, like everyone else have
a variety of abilities and skills and need to make the best possible
use of whatever talents they have” [32, P.44]. Is the ability to manage
a class one of these skills? Can well-qualified language teachers teach
without thinking of classroom management? As a high schoolteacher, one
of my most important concerns is how to manage students' behavior in
order to get effective learning. According to Underwood, “Implementing
a fair and firm classroom management plan is among a teacher's most
important activities” [32, P48].
I believe that successful classroom management is
the key to improving
learning English in high schools. According to Wragg
,“Successful secondary teachers operate in many different ways but
they have one thing in common—an ability to manage their classrooms
effectively” . Teachers who cannot manage their classes successfully,
even though they are the most inspiring and knowledgeable
Underwood states that “being a fluent, accurate
English speaker is a great
help, but this alone does not make you into a successful
teacher” [32, P23]. There areother areas of skills that are of crucial
importance to teachers. Wragg states
that “there are certain skills that teachers possess
that are of paramount importance
and class management is one of those areas” [35,
P.29].In order to teach, teachers must have control over their classroom.
Marzano states that “effective teaching and learning cannot take place
in a poorlymanaged class” . If teachers teach without establishing
control, then the qualityof teaching will suffer. Therefore, there is
a hidden area of successful teaching. Thissecret is in classroom management.
[23,P.27].
According to Wragg , “For many years researchers and teachers themselves
have tried to find the secrets of successful teaching….Without the
ability to manage a group effectively, any other qualities teachers
have may be neutralized”. Hence, successful class management is one
of the most important strategies that lead to successful language classes.[35,P.36].Some
literature indicates that there is a close relation between classroom
management and culture. Capel, J points out that “some aspects of
classroom management may be quite culture-dependent” [12, P.89]. Some
management problems may arise due to some cultural issues. The culture
of both students and teachers may affect classroom management problems
and strategies. He points out that teachers may find a need to reevaluate
their skills once they begin to deal with groups of different levels
of motivation and cultural backgrounds. Experienced ESL/EFL teachers
need a thorough understanding of students' culture as this culture may
affect students' behavior in language classroom. Capel, discusses the
relation between classroom management and culture. He points out that
“some classroom management problems … may also arise due to classroom
expectations from the students' culture being unfulfilled in the host
ESL culture. [12, P.83].
Obviously, we cannot separate classroom management
from other learning
activities. Snyder, for instance, states that “classroom
management is not a
separate process divorced from the daily learning
activities” [31,P.61]. In addition,
he discusses some perspectives on teaching excellence
in higher education and the role of the educator as a disciplinary actor;
they claim that discipline is integral to pedagogy, as they are inseparable.
Classroom management is seen by many stakeholders as a measure of a
teacher’s success. Scharle, points out that administrators are happy
if the teacher never sends a student to the social worker or the office
and consider this as proof that the teacher is in control and doing
a good job.[30, P.16].
To sum up, successful teachers are often effective
managers of classroom
management. Effective classroom management encourages
positive social contact, creating a relaxing atmosphere, active engagement,
and raising extrinsic and
intrinsic motivation.
Classroom Management Theories and Perspectives
There is a plethora of information about classroom
management theories and
perspectives “although it is a neglected topic
in debates on language education. Motivating students towards learning
and treating students in a humanistic fashion are key factors for effective
classroom management. Saville-Troikepoints out that humanistic approaches
are efforts used to explain learning from a psychological perspective.
She adds that these approaches emphasize “emotional involvement in
learning, as well as biological difference associated with age, sex,
and modes of processing” [29,P.29]. Much research points out that
many successful instructors follow affective strategies in which means
for learning the second language are related to individual feelings.
According to Webb, “The affective domain…is at the very heart of
the classroom management process” [33, P.22].
Webb, points out that “proponents of humanistic
foreign language
education have argued that studying a foreign language
in a warm, supportive
environment and applying student-centered techniques
can mobilize a student’s self awareness as well as refine thinking
and develop linguistic skills” [33, P.25]. Within the humanistic perspectives,
a prime goal that the instructor pursues is the development of self,
or simply what it means to be human. This includes reinforcing appropriate
behavior in classrooms through effective classroom management. Webb,
Metha, and Jordan discuss the issue of classroom
management and the teacher as a class manager from
different perspectives.
Concerning Perennialism whose educational focus is
on the need to return to the
past, namely, “to universal truths and such absolutes
as reason and faith” [33,P.29]
they point out that “Perennialists are concerned
with training not only the intellect,
but also the will. They believe that the teacher
has the obligation to discipline the
student in order to train the will” (In this perspective,
the classroom
environment should reflect precision and order. Progressivism
focuses on real world problem-solving activities in a democratic and
cooperative learning
environment. Webb, Metha, and Jordan point out that
“the progressivist
teacher would foster a classroom environment that
practices democracy and
emphasizes citizenship” They, also, describe two
general principals that
guide the behaviorist teacher in classroom management:
first, identify expected
student behavior, and second, translate expectations
into procedures and routines. There is a close relation between classroom
management and motivation.
Teachers who are good managers create environments
of motivation to arouse
students' interests, guide them to behave well, and
encourage them to learn
effectively. Everston, points out that “one of
a manager's most important concerns is the motivation of workers, or
for our purposes, students” . He adds that unmotivated students do
poor work or no work, learn very little, and often behave in irresponsible
or disruptive ways while motivated students behave responsibly, do quality
work, and learn well.[14,P.36].
Before dealing with classroom management strategies,
a clear understanding
of the term motivation, its types, and its relation
to second language acquisition is
essential. The term motivation is a broad concept
that cannot be easily defined.
Furthermore, researchers often discuss the concept
of motivation from different
perspectives; whether it is affective, cognitive,
and behavioral or something else.
“Motivation” notes that in psychology, motivation
refers to initiation,
direction, intensity, and persistence of behavior.
In other words, motivation is a
temporal and dynamic state that should not be confused
with personality or emotion. Simply, motivation is having the desire
to do something. A motivated person can breaching for a long-term goal
such as becoming a professional language learner or a short-term goal
like learning how to spell a particular word. In general, motivation
definitions are based on the desire to do something.
Everston, looks at motivation from three perspectives.
From a behaviorist perspective, motivation is simply seen as the anticipation
of reward. In cognitive terms, motivation places more emphasis on the
individuals' decisions. It is defined as the choices people make as
to what experiences or goals they will approach
or avoid and the degree of effort they will exert
in that respect. A constructivist view of motivation places even further
emphasis on social context as well as individual personal choices. He
points out that motivation in second language acquisition has three
components: effort, desire to achieve a goal, and attitudes. He notes
that effort is made up of several components such as the desire to please
a teacher or parent. The desire to achieve a goal is the place at which
an integrative orientation is important while attitudes are thought
of as the sustaining base. The socio-educational model in second language
acquisition defines motivation as the learner's orientation with regard
to the goal for learning a second language. Two types of motivation
are intrinsic and extrinsic. They are additive and could be combined
to produce the highest level of motivation. Intrinsic motivation is
internal motivation, which is evident when people do an activity for
its own sake, without some obvious external reward. A typical example
of this type is a hobby. Numerous studies have found that intrinsic
motivation is associated with high educational achievement and enjoyment
by students. The idea of a reward for achievement is absent from this
model since rewards are an extrinsic factor.
It asserts, “Our goal as educators is to foster an intrinsic motivation
for lifelong learning in our students” . MacDonald and Healy offer
several ways to begin developing intrinsic motivation. First, teachers
can drawn student curiosity as a means to motivate. Second, teachers
can sue mental challenges as a means to motivate. For example, they
can use cross-word puzzles ,mysteries, and in congruities to motivate
their students intrinsically.[19, P.46]. Lastly, teachers can appeal
to students’ needs for personal competence. On the other hand, extrinsic
motivation is obvious when there is an external reward. It comes into
play when a person is compelled to do something or act ascertain way
because of factors external to him or her like money or good grades.
Traditionally, extrinsic motivation has been used to motivate employees
and students. There are two types of rewards: tangible rewards such
as payments, promotion, or grades and intangible rewards such as praise
or public commendation.) He divides motivation into another two basic
types: integrative and instrumental. Integrative motivation is characterized
by the learners' positive attitudes towards the target language group
and the desire to integrate into the target language community. In this
case, Saville-Troike points out that emotional or affective factors
are dominant. Some examples of integrative motivation are romantic reasons
and migration. [29, P.56] Instrumental motivation underlies the goal
to gain some socialor economic reward through L2 achievement, thus referring
to a more functional reason for language learning such as increasing
occupational or business opportunities, enhancing prestige and power,
accessing scientific and technical information, or just passing a course
in school.Much research discusses integrative and instrumental motivation
in terms of affecting SL learners. While both integrative and instrumental
motivation are essential elements of success, it is thought that integrative
motivation sustains long-term success when learning a second language.
Snyder points out that most successful SL learners
are those who like the people that speak the target language, admire
the culture, and have a desire to become familiar with or even integrate
into the society in which the target language is used. [31, P.27].He
indicates that" integrativeness generally accompanies higher scores
on proficiency tests in a foreign language". In later studies,
integrative motivation has continued to be emphasized, although nowadays
the importance of instrumental motivation is greatly linked to successful
second language acquisition. He claims that nowadays students select
instrumental reasons more frequently than integrative reasons for the
study of language. Most language teachers think that motivation is a
key factor for success in language learning. Saville-Troike points out
that individual motivation explains to a large extent why some L2 learners
are more successful than others. It largely determines the level of
effort which learners expend at various stages in theirL2 development
and it is often a key to ultimate level of proficiency. [29, P.37].
Lightbown andSpada ( state that “there is ample evidence that positive
motivation is associated with a willingness to keep learning” . [21,
P.67]. Without sufficient motivation, individuals with the most
remarkable abilities cannot accomplish long-term goals. Although a lot
of research has been conducted on exploring the construct of language
learning motivation, there has been little discussion about what language
learning motivation is. Durnyei states, “Although the study of language
learning motivation has undoubtedly been one of the most developed areas
within SLA research, it has virtually no links with other SLA research
traditions, resulting in what appears to be a total lack of integration
of motivation research into the traditional domain of applied linguistics”
[13,P.85] However, much literature indicates that motivation is crucial
in language learning. There seems to be a general agreement that motivation
plays a major role in second language learning. However, disagreement
arises when we try to capture "the essence of the motivation construct"
(Dornyei & Schmidt, Dornyei (2005) indicates that it is easy to
see why motivation is of great importance in SLA. It provides the primary
motive to initiate L2 learning and later the driving force to sustain
the long and often tedious earning process. Much literature claims that
motivation is changeable and can be enhanced. According to Weinstein
, “If motivation is an innate or unchangeable characteristic, then
we don’t have to spend time and energy figuring out ways to motivate
students” . She notes that teachers are responsible for stimulating
students' engagement in learning activities. She points out that “teachers
must redouble their efforts to create a classroom context that fosters
students' involvement and interest” . She adds that students in foreign
language classes can be more enthusiastic about role-playing a visit
to a restaurant than about conjugating verbs.[34,P.91].