Шпаргалка по "Иностранному языку"

Автор работы: Пользователь скрыл имя, 15 Сентября 2013 в 16:36, шпаргалка

Описание работы

Лексикология как наука. Предмет лексикологии и ее связь с другими разделами языкознания
Слово как основная единица языка. Отношения между словом и понятием
Проблема определения слова и его основные характеристики
Элементы семантической структуры слова. Полисемия в английском языке
Полисемия и омонимия. Проблема разграничения полисемии и омонимии
Антонимические отношения между словарными единицами. Некоторые общие и различительные черты синонимов и антонимов
Типы значения. Значение в синтагматике и парадигматике
Значение в сложных словах

Файлы: 1 файл

ЛЕКСИКОЛОГИЯ ЭКЗАМЕН.doc

— 820.00 Кб (Скачать файл)
  1. Лексикология как наука. Предмет лексикологии и ее связь с другими разделами языкознания
  2. Слово как основная единица языка. Отношения между словом и понятием
  3. Проблема определения слова и его основные характеристики
  4. Элементы семантической структуры слова. Полисемия в английском языке
  5. Полисемия и омонимия. Проблема разграничения полисемии и омонимии
  6. Антонимические отношения между словарными единицами. Некоторые общие и различительные черты синонимов и антонимов
  7. Типы значения. Значение в синтагматике и парадигматике
  8. Значение в сложных словах
  9. Семантические изменения как источник количественного и качественного роста словаря. Расширение и сужение значения
  10. Виды синонимов. Синонимические ряды. Синонимическая доминанта. Эвфемизмы как специальный вид синонимов. Дифференциация синонимов
  11. Омонимы в английском языке. Классификация омонимов
  12. Синонимия в английском языке. Критерии синонимичности. Происхождение омонимов
  13. Морфемы. Типы морфем. Алломорфы
  14. Процессы улучшения и ухудшения значения. Другие типы семантических изменений
  15. Развитие словарного состава английского языка. Причины развития лексикона
  16. Системные группы слов. Тематические группы
  17. Омонимия в синхроническом аспекте. Разграничение омонимии и полисемии
  18. Проблема мотивации слов
  19. Причины и типы семантических изменений
  20. Семантические поля
  21. Значение в производных словах. Синонимия, полисемия и омонимия аффиксов
  22. Морфемный и деривационный анализ. Анализ по НС
  23. Словообразование. Синхронический и диахронический подходы к словообразованию. Различные типы словообразования в английском языке
  24. Суффиксация в английском языке. Происхождение и продуктивность английских суффиксов
  25. Префиксация в английском языке
  26. Конверсия как один из наиболее продуктивных способов словообразования в английском языке. Различные подходы к проблеме конверсии. Диахронический и синхронический подходы к изучению конверсии
  27. Типичные семантические отношения между членами конвертируемых пар (синхронический подход)
  28. Проблема субстантивации
  29. Словосложение в английском языке. Классификация сложных слов
  30. Критерии разграничения сложных слов от словосочетаний
  31. Сокращение как один из продуктивных словообразования в современном английском языке. Различные типы сокращений
  32. Второстепенные способы словообразования (обратная деривация, звукоподражание, редупликация, чередование звуков и др.)
  33. Графические сокращения, акронимы, слова, образованные в результате телескопии
  34. Историческая изменчивость структуры слова
  35. Сочетаемость и валентность слов
  36. Фразеологические единицы. Их устойчивость, раздельнооформленность и семантическая целостность
  37. Классификации фразеологических единиц
  38. Пути и способы образования фразеологических единиц
  39. Этимологическая характеристика английского словаря. Исконные и заимствованные слова. Критерии заимствования
  40. Пути и способы заимствования. Критерии заимствования
  41. Источники заимствований. Роль французских заимствований в английском языке
  42. Роль латинских заимствований в английском языке
  43. Различные типы заимствований. Ассимиляция заимствований
  44. Проблема интернациональных слов
  45. Гибридные слова
  46. Этимологические дублеты
  47. Неологизмы Способы образования неологизмов
  48. Варианты и диалекты английского языка
  49. Основные принципы составления словарей. Виды словарей

 

Лексикология как наука. Предмет  лексикологии и ее связь с другими  разделами языкознания

Lexicology is a branch of linguistics concerned with the vocabulary of a language and properties of words. This term is composed of two morphemes form the Greek language: ‘lexis’ (word, phrase) and ‘logos’ (branch of knowledge, learning). Lexicology studies the vocabulary of a given language at a given stage in history. The task of lexicology is a study and systematic description of vocabulary, its origin, development, and current use. Lexicology is concerned with words, phraseological units, variable word groups, and morphemes which make up words.

The general study of words and vocabulary, irrespective of the specific features of any particular language, is known as general lexicology. Linguistic phenomena and properties common to all languages are generally referred to as language universals. Special lexicology devotes its attention to the description of the characteristic peculiarities in the vocabulary of a given language. It goes without saying that every special lexicology is based on the principles of general lexicology, and the latter forms a part of general linguistics.

A great deal has been written in recent years to provide a theoretical basis on which the vocabularies of different languages can be compared and described. This relatively new branch of study is called contrastive lexicology. The evolution of any vocabulary, as well as of its single elements,forms the object of historical lexicology or etymology. This branch of linguistics discusses the origin of various words, their change and development, and investigates the linguistic and extra-linguistic forces modifying their structure, meaning and usage. In the past historical treatment was always combined with the comparative method.

Descriptive lexicology deals with the vocabulary of a given language at a given stage of its development. It studies the functions of words and their specific structure as a characteristic inherent in the system. The descriptive lexicology of the English language deals with the English word in its morphological and semantical structures, investigating the interdependence between these two aspects.

Meaning relations as a whole are dealt with in semantics — the study of meaning which is relevant both for lexicology and grammar.

The distinction between the two basically different ways in which language may be viewed, the historical or diachronic (Gr dia ‘through’ and chronos ‘time’) and the descriptive or synchronic (Gr syn ‘together’, ‘with’), is a methodological distinction, a difference of approach, artificially separating for the purpose of study what in real language is inseparable, because actually every linguistic structure and system exists in a state of constant development. The distinction between a synchronic and a diachronic approach is due to the Swiss philologist Ferdinand de Saussure (1857-1913).

Lexicology and other branches of science

  • Lexicology and sociolinguistics

The vocabulary of any language quickly reacts to any changes in social life and every new phenomenon is reflected in vocabulary. Every new object or notion created by the speech community gets a new name, that is why the vocabulary of any language is never rigid, stable, but always growing and changing. In this way,sociolinguistics is a branch of science which deals with correlations between the facts of social life and linguistic facts, the system of the language and its development. Lexicology also should take into account the stratification of society and find points of contact between the social life and the language. The development of science and technology, latest political reality have given rise to many new words and phraseological units. The influence of extralinguistic forces or the development of words may be traced in the content and form of many words and phraseological units. Besides, we see a lot of borrowings from other languages.

  • Lexicology and phonetics (phonology)

The points of contact between them are numerous. Words consist of sounds or phonemes which build up morphemes in their turn. Phonemes perform the distinctive function differentiating words (‘chum’ - ‘much’). A different sound sequence results in a different word. Besides, sometimes stress is used for differentiating words (parts of speech, n. ‘record’ - v. ‘record’). On the historical plane phonology helps us to differentiate between homonyms and polysemy or to explain the connection between such words as ‘history’ and ‘story’, ‘flower’ and ‘flour’, which historically were one word.

  • Lexicology and grammar

Every word belongs to some part of speech and it follows certain grammar rules. Alongside with lexical, words have grammatical meanings, and any word can perform a grammatical function or occur in certain grammatical patterns, if their lexical meaning enables them to do so. For example, words denoting substances have only one form and category of number. Objects consisting of two halves are always plural (‘scissors’). Sometimes a grammatical form becomes a basis for new word (he looks - his looks). This is called the process of lexicalisation of grammatical forms. Besides, the existence of two grammatical forms of the same word leads to their semantic differentiation: ‘brothers’ - ‘brethren’, ‘cows’ - ‘kine’. One and the same word may function as a notional word and a form word: ‘to go wrong’ - ‘to go to the cinema’.

  • Lexicology and stylistic

Lexicology is closely connected to it, and linguostylistic is defined as a branch of linguistics dealing with the investigation of the styles of speech and stylistic expressive means with relation to the contents expressed. Both lexicology and linguostylistic treat of differentiation of vocabulary to the sphere of communication, the type of transference of meaning, semantic structure of words and connotations which can be found in this structure.

 

Слово как основная единица языка. Отношения между словом и понятием

A word is one of the fundamental units of language. It is a dialectical unity of form and concept. It is related both to extra-linguistic reality and to human notions. Its basic function is to reflect reality in its content. Word is used for the purposes of human communication, materially representing a group of sounds possessing a meaning and characterized by formal and semantic unity.

The branch of linguistics concerned with the meaning of words and word equivalents is called semasiology. If treated diachronically, semasiology studies the change in meaning which words undergo. Descriptive synchronic approach demands a study not of individual words but of semantic structures typical of the language studied, and of its general semantic system.

The main objects of semasiological study are as follows:

  • semantic development of words,
  • its causes and classification,
  • relevant distinctive features and types of lexical meaning,
  • polysemy and semantic structure of words,
  • semantic grouping and connections in the vocabulary system, i.e. synonyms, antonyms, terminological systems, etc.

The definition of lexical meaning has been attempted more than once in accordance with the main principles of different linguistic schools. The disciples of F. de Saussure consider meaning to be the relation between the object or notion named, and the name itself. Descriptive linguistics of the Bloomfieldian trend defines the meaning as the situation in which the word is uttered. Both ways of approach afford no possibility of a further investigation of semantic problems in strictly linguistic terms, and therefore, if taken as a basis for general linguistic theory, give no insight into the mechanism of meaning.

In our country the definitions of meaning given by various authors, though different in detail, agree in the basic principle: they all point out that lexical meaning is the realisation of concept or emotion by means of a definite language system. The definition stresses that semantics studies only such meanings that can be expressed, that is concepts bound by signs. It has also been repeatedly stated that the plane of content in speech reflects the whole of human consciousness, which comprises not only mental activity but emotions, volition, etc. as well.

The complexity of the word meaning is manifold. The four most important types of semantic complexity may be roughly described as follows:

  1. Firstly, every word combines lexical and grammatical meanings. E.g.: Father is a personal noun.
  2. Secondly, many words not only refer to some object but have an aura of associations expressing the attitude of the speaker. They have not only denotative but connotative meaning as well. E. g.: Daddy is a colloquial term of endearment.
  3. Thirdly, the denotational meaning is segmented into semantic components or semes. E.g.: Father is a male parent.
  4. Fourthly, a word may be polysemantic, that is it may have several meanings, all interconnected and forming its semantic structure. E. g.: Father may mean: ‘male parent’, ‘an ancestor’, ‘a founder or leader’, ‘a priest’.

The grammatical meaning is defined as an expression in speech of relationships between words based on contrastive features of arrangements in which they occur. The grammatical meaning is more abstract and more generalised than the lexical meaning, it unites words into big groups such as parts of speech or lexico-grammatical classes. It is recurrent in identical sets of individual forms of different words. E. g. parents, books, intentions, whose common element is the grammatical meaning of plurality.

The lexiсo-grammatical meaning is the common denominator of all the meanings of words belonging to a lexico-grammatical class of words, it is the feature according to which they are grouped together. Words in which abstraction and generalisation are so great that they can be lexical representatives of lexico-grammatical meanings and substitute any word of their class are called generic terms. For example the word matter is a generic term for material nouns, the word group — for collective nouns, the word person — for personal nouns.

Words belonging to one lexico-grammatical class are characterised by a common system of forms in which the grammatical categories inherent in them are expressed. They are also substituted by the same prop-words and possess some characteristic formulas of semantic and morphological structure and a characteristic set of derivational affixes. The degree and character of abstraction and generalisation in lexico-grammatical meanings and the generic terms that represent them are intermediate between those characteristic of grammatical categories and those observed on the lexical level — hence the term lexico-grammatical.

The conceptual content of a word is expressed in its denotative meaning.1 To denote is to serve as a linguistic expression for a concept or as a name for an individual object. The denotative meaning may be signifiсative, if the referent is a concept, or demоfistrative, if it is an individual object. The term referent or denotatum (pl. denotata) is used in both cases.

The information communicated by virtue of what the word refers to is often subject to complex associations originating in habitual contexts, verbal or situational, of which the speaker and the listener are aware, they give the word its connotative meaning. The connotative component is optional, and even when it is present its proportion with respect to the logical counterpart may vary within wide limits. We shall call connotation what the word conveys about the speaker’s attitude to the social circumstances and the appropriate functional style (slay vs kill), about his approval or disapproval of the object spoken of (clique vs group), about the speaker’s emotions (mummy vs mother), or the degree of intensity (adore vs love). The third type of semantic segmentation mentioned on p. 39 was the segmentation of the denotational meaning into semantic components.

The lexical meaning vs. Notion

The term notion (concept) is introduced into linguistics from logic and psychology. It denotes the reflection in the mind of real objects and phenomena in their essential features and relations. Each notion is characterised by its scope and content. The scope of the notion is determined by all the objects it refers to. The content of the notion is made up of all the features that distinguish it from other notions. The distinction between the scope and the content of a notion lies at the basis of such terms as the identifying (demonstrative) and significative functions of the word that have been discussed above. The identifying function may be interpreted as denoting the objects covered by the scope of the notion expressed in the word, and the significative function is the function of expressing the content of the respective notion. The function of rendering an emotion or an attitude is termed the expressive function.

The relationship between the linguistic lexical meaning and the logical notion deserves special attention not only because they are apt to be confused but also because in comparing and contrasting them it is possible to achieve a better insight into the essence of both.

  • I. The first essential point is that the relationship between notion and meaning varies. A word may have a notion for its referent. In the example A good laugh is sunshine in the house (Thackeray) every word evokes a general idea, a notion, without directly referring to any particular element of reality. The scope of the significative meaning and that of the notion coincide; on different levels they cover the same area. But a word may also have, and quite often has a particular individual object for its referent as in “Do you remember what the young lady did with the telegram?” (Christie) The problem of proper names is particularly complicated. It has been often taken for granted that they do not convey any generalised notion at all, that they only name human beings, countries, cities, animals, rivers, stars, etc. The clue, as St. Ullmann convincingly argues, lies in the specific function of proper names which is identification, and not signifying. Pronouns possess the demonstrative function almost to a complete exclusion of the significative function, i.e. they only point out, they do not impart any information about the object pointed out except for its relation to the speaker. To sum up this first point: the logical notion is the referent of lexical meaning quite often but not always, because there may be other referents such as the real objects.
  • II. Secondly, notions are always emotionally neutral as they are a category of thought. Language, however, expresses all possible aspects of human consciousness. Therefore the meaning of many words not only conveys some reflection of objective reality but also connotations revealing the speaker’s state of mind and his attitude to what he is speaking about.
  • III. Thirdly, the absence not only of identity, but even of regular one-to-one correspondence between meaning and notion is clearly seen in words belonging to some specific stylistic level. This purely linguistic factor is relevant not for the content of the message but for the personality of the speaker, his background and his relations with his audience. The stylistic colouring should not be mixed with emotional tone although here they coincide. A word may have a definite stylistic characteristic and be completely devoid of any emotional colouring.
  • IV. The linguistic nature of lexical meaning has very important consequences. Expressing a notion, a word does so in a way determined by the peculiarities of the lexical and grammatical systems of each particular language and by the various structural ties of the word in speech. Every word may be said to have paradigmatic ties relating it to other words and forms, and giving it a differential quality. The lexical meaning of every word depends upon the part of speech to which the word belongs. Every word may be used in a limited set of syntactical functions, and with a definite valency. It has a definite set of grammatical meanings, and a definite set of forms. In summing up this fourth point, we note that the complexity of the notion is determined by the relationships of the extra-linguistic reality reflected in human consciousness. The structure of every separate meaning depends on the linguistic syntagmatic and paradigmatic relationships because meaning is an inherent component of language. The complexity of each word meaning is due to the fact that it combines lexical meaning with lexico-grammatical meaning and sometimes with emotional colouring, stylistic peculiarities and connotations born from previous usage.
  • V. The foregoing deals with separate meanings as realised in speech. If we turn to the meaning of words as they exist in language we shall observe that frequently used words are polysemantic. Morphological derivation also plays a very important part in determining possible meaning combinations. Thus, for instance, nouns derived from verbs very often name not only the action itself but its result as well, e. g. show n ‘the act of showing’, ‘an exhibition’.
  • VI. Last but not least, the difference between notion and meaning is based upon the fact that notions are mostly international, especially for nations with the same level of cultural development, whereas meaning may be nationally determined and limited.

Summing up all the points of difference between the thing meant, the notion and the meaning, we can say that the lexical meaning of the word may be defined as the realisation or naming of a notion, emotion or object by means of a definite language system subject to the influence of grammar and vocabulary peculiarities of that language. Words that express notions may also have some emotional or stylistic colouring or express connotations suggestive of the contexts in which they often appear. All the specific features that distinguish the lexical meaning from the notion are due to its linguistic nature. Expressing the notion is one of the word’s functions but not the only one, as there are words that do not name any notion of the language.

 

Проблема определения слова  и его основные характеристики

Nobody doubts that word is a basic unit of lexicology, alongside with morphemes and phraseological units. Each word is a small unit within a vast, efficient and well-balanced system. It is immediately understood by every native speaker. A word is a dialectical unity of form and content. The definition of the word is one of the most difficult in linguistics because the simplest word is a multi-aspect unit possessing a sound form (a certain arrangement of phonemes). Besides, it has morphological structure (a certain arrangement of morphemes). When it is used in actual speech, it may occur in different word forms and signal different meanings. The word is a sort of focus for the problems of phonology, lexicology, syntax, morphology and also for some other sciences dealing with the language and speech. Each of these sciences suggests its own definition of the word but in fact none of these definitions can be considered totally satisfactory in all aspects.

If we try to divorce two facets of the word (form and content), the word will lose its identity. The word is further complicated by the existence of variants and word forms. ‘Write - writing - has been writing - wrote - written’ - these are word forms. They are lexically identical but have different grammatical meaning. These forms constitute the word paradigm. Variants appear when slight modifications in the morphemic or phonemic structure of the word are related with any modification in the content or changes in the plane of expression are linked with the change in the plane of content (‘open’ - ‘opened’). Lexical semantic variants appear if we observe the change of meaning without modification of the form: ‘open face - open sound - open window’.

All these considerations show that any attempt to give a definition of the word faces a lot of difficulties. There are a lot of linguistic definitions of the word. It can be defined syntactically (a minimal sentence; a minimal free form which occur in sentences), as a minimal meaningful unit of speech. It can be considered on purely phonetic criterion as a part of the sentence singled out with full stops. Some linguists claim that word is means of nominating any element of extralinguistic reality.

There are some characteristics of the word which scientists mention:

  • its indivisibility showing that words cannot be divided without a disturbance of meaning. It means that you cannot insert anything into the middle of the word without breaking its internal indivisibility. C.f.: ‘to stay alone’ - ‘to stay a quite lone’ - ‘a lone star’.
  • some linguists also prove that words possess ininterruptibility. C.f.: ‘the boy-s slow-ly walk-ed up the hill’

Words in sentences may change their position, but they should behave as blocks. They occur always together, they are positionally mobile, but indivisible. Prof. Smirnitsky singles out grammatical cohesion as the main criterion of the word. He tries to prove that word combinations are different from words because they lack structural cohesion and are divisible, cf.: “a black bird” - “a blackbird”. The latter is characterized by unity and it possesses a single grammatical framing (“blackbirds”). The first component (black) cannot have any grammatical changes. On the contrary, each component of “a black bird” may have its own grammatical framing, e.g. “the blackest birds”. Besides, if we take a word combination, we can insert other words between the components of it - “a black night bird”, but that is impossible with a single word. The word “blackbird” conveys only one concept - the type of the bird. As for the word combination, it conveys the two meanings - the color and the type of the animal.

Информация о работе Шпаргалка по "Иностранному языку"