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Работа содержит ответы на вопросы для экзамена по "Английскому языку".
Теор грам экзамен
1.Noun: classification of nouns, distribution of nouns, collective nouns.
Nouns fall into two classes; Common Nouns and Proper Nouns
(1) A Common Noun is the name for all the members of a class of objects — that is, the name is common to all the members of the class: as, state, country, man, bank, lake.
(2) A Proper Noun is the distinctive
name of an individual member of a class: as, Virginia (a member of the
class of state), Germany (country),
Distribution:
N+N+N rose leave color
Adj+N greenpeace
N+A snow-white
N+Inf book to read
N+Gerund nature loving
N+Adv man enough
A Collective Noun is the name of a collection or group of similar objects: as, mob, herd, club, team, company (a commercial organization), U.S. Navy, United Nations, Republican Party, Army Corps of Engineers.
2. CASE GRAMMAR SCHOOL
Charles Fillmore – the founder
Task: to study the role of the verb, relation between words and sentences, to go deeper in the study of meaning.
Ch. Fillmore introduced syntactic-semantic classification of cases. They
show relations in the so-called deep structure of the sentence. According to him,
verbs may stand to different relations to nouns. There are 6 cases:
1. Agentive Case (A) John opened the door;
2. Instrumental case (I) The key opened the door; John used the key to open the
door;
3. Dative Case (D) John believed that he would win (the case of the animate
being affected by the state of action identified by the verb);
4. Factitive Case (F) The key was damaged (the result of the action or state
identified by the verb);
5. Locative Case (L) Chicago is windy;
6. Objective case (O) John stole the book.
The syntactic case concept - its role is to indicate a construction in
syntax. Thus genitive is a case which marks one noun as dependent on another, e.g.
John’s car.
3.Lexical and Grammatical means of linking sentences.
Cohesion is the grammatical and lexical li
It is related to the broader concept of coherence.
There are two main types of cohesion: grammatical, referring to the structural content, and lexical, referring to the language content of the piece. A cohesive text is created in many different ways.
In Cohesion in English, M.A.K. Halliday and Ruqaiya Hasan identify five general categories of cohesive devices that create coherence in texts: reference, ellipsis, substitution, lexical cohesion and conjunction.
4.Adjectives: grammatical meaning, distribution, categories, functions.
Adjective- denotes a quality or a thing. It may also denote relations between 2 things.
Distribution:
A+A
Deep blue
Scarlett red
Dark blue
N+A
Snow-white
Adv+A
Extremely fast
A+inf
Ready to come
A+Gerund
Worth watching
Categories opposition
Describe feelings or qualities: They are honest people
Give nationality or origin: Our house is Victorian
Tell more about a thing's characteristics: The knife is sharp
Tell about shape,age,color etc
5.The notions of grammatical meaning, grammatical form, grammatical category.
Grammatical meanings are very abstract, very general. Therefore the
grammatical form is not confined to an individual word, but unites a whole class of
words, so that each word of the class expresses the corresponding grammatical
meaning together with its individual, concrete semantics.
Grammatical forms can be morphemes, synthetic forms, and grammatical
word combinations, which are analytical forms. Synthetic forms unite both lexical
and grammatical meanings in one word.
A grammatical category is a unit of grammar based on a morphological
opposition of grammatical meanings presented in grammatical forms.
6. Means of form-building
Form-building means are means of building in new forms of words. They’re treated in G., namely in morphology.
Different types of f.-b. means:
-Synthetic means is the expression of the relation of words in the sentence by means of a change in the word itself: -affixation (the most productive means of f.-b.) Grammatical suffixes:-s/'-es; -ed; -ing; -en; -m (both are non-productive); -er - comparative degree of adjectives; -est; 0 (the zero-morpheme)- most productive.
-Sound interchange(morphological alteration). It is a change of a sound(s) in the root of a word. Sound interchange can express plurality in the noun {man - men);
-Suppletion. In suppletive forms there is a complete change of the phonetic shape of the root, which happens due to the fact that certain forms belonging to the paradigm of a word were once borrowed from a different source even from a different language. We find suppletive forms in most frequently used verbs {to be, to go), adjectives (good, bad), pronouns (I-me; we-us)
7. Grammatical category: distinction between overt and covert categories.
Overt and covert categories always have some mark which distinguish it from other forms.
An overt category is a category having a formal mark which is present ( with only infrequent exceptions) in every sentence containing a member of the category.
Thus in English the plural of nouns is an overt category, for example in “fish appeared” the absence of any article denotes plural.
A covert category is marked only in certain types of sentence and not in every sentence in which word or element belonging to the category occurs. (Categ. Of voice, gender –covert)
8.Theoretical grammar as science, its connections with other linguistic disciplines.
Linguistics is the scientific study of human languages.
Grammar is one of the main linguistic disciplines which studies the grammatical system of language. It consists of the morphology and syntax.
Morphology- is a branch of linguistic which treats with words and their forms.
Syntax- is a branch which treats of the phrases, sentences, texts.
Grammar is also connected with pragmalinguistic, descriptive linguistic and other branches of linguistics.
9. Generative Transformation Grammar School: representatives, tasks, kernel sentences.
Chomsky –the founder
Task: to analyze principles of transformation and to explain how sentences are generated.
This school based it’s knowledge on the principles of American structuralism; they took lexical meaning into closer studies, introduced notion of Kernel sentences, rules of transformation
KERNEL sentences:
10. Characteristic features of linguistic sign.
Features of linguistic signs;
They were formulated by Saussure:
1) The link between signifier and signified is arbitrary (условная).
2) The nature of signifier is linear (линейная).
It means that its elements are presented in the form of a chain.
3) Immutability (неизменяемость)
and mutability (изменяемость)
at the same time.
Immutability – the signifier
is fixed, not free with respect to the linguistic community that uses
it.
Mutability – in the
cause of time there can take place a shift in the relationship between
the signifier and the signified. Language never exists apart from society
and it changes together with it.
4) Linguistic signs are
natural because languages are the only natural systems of communication.
11. The notion of opposition in grammar and its types.
The paradigmatic relations of grammatical forms in a category are exposed in the so-called grammatical opposition. In other words, grammatical category is some total of all the oppositions of words.
1. The first being binary, we deal with 2 elements, 2 nouns N(+)/N(-)
2. Gradual opposition( red-redder-reddest)- the category of degrees of comparison
Each of them has one feature, but different degree
3. Equipollent opposition (am - is - are)– category of tense of verbs, each form has its own different features.
One member of the opposition is weak, the other is strong.
Weak is called – unmarked member
Strong- marked member
-boy unm./+ boys mark.
12.Pronouns as part of speech: general characteristics, types of pronouns.
Pronoun – denotes indication and substitution, it points out objects without naming them.
There are several classes of pronouns:
Impersonal – it
Introductory- it
Demonstrative- those, that
Relative- what
Reciprocal- each other one another
Indefinite-somebody
Interrogative –how, who, which, what
Possessive-my, your, his, her
Absolute possessive-mine, yours, his, hers
Reflexive-myself, yourself, herself, himself
Structure-simple, compound, composite(form of a phrase)
13. Contensive grammar school
Katznelson –the founder
Task: the study of meaning
When we translate we don’t translate the form but the meaning
Different forms may fulfill different functions
John’s letter/ a letter of John
If we compare:
Cтол накрыт скатертью/официанткой – surface the same
14.Degrees of comparison of adjectives. The problem of analytical degrees.
3 ways of forming degrees of comparison: synthetic, analytical, suppletive
Degrees: 1) positive degree 2)comparative degree 3)superlative degree
Some believes that there is no analytical form. For example Some authors treat more beautiful and the most beautiful not as analytical forms. One of the arguments is that less and least form combinations with adjectives similar to those with more and most: e.g. more beautiful – less beautiful, the most beautiful – the least beautiful. But it’s not right.
(less is regularly replaced by not so: less pretty = not so pretty)
15.The problem of notional and formal parts of speech.
Traditionally, all parts of speech are subdivided on the upper level of classification into notional words and functional words. Notional words, which traditionally include nouns, verbs, adjectives, adverbs, pronouns and numerals, have complete nominative meanings, are in most cases changeable and fulfill self-dependent syntactic functions in the sentence.
Functional words, which include conjunctions, prepositions, articles, interjections, particles, and modal words, have incomplete nominative value, are unchangeable and fulfill mediatory, constructional syntactic functions.
The employment of the three criteria combined, in present-day mainstream linguistics, was developed mainly by V. V. Vinogradov, L. V. Scherba, A. I. Smirnitsky, B. A. Ilyish and others.
16. The school of semantic Syntax
Katz, Portal, Lakoff – the founders
Task: To analyze of all the components of the meaning of the word
17.Text Grammar school: representatives, scientific contribution, methods of investigation.
Michael Halliday – the founder
Task: to study, explain and describe the principles of text organization
They were the first to give the definition of text
All the sentences should be devoted to one and same object.
Ex.: The little boy threw a big stone
We use IC method
The boy threw a stone
The boy is little
The stone is big
18.The processes of substativisation and adjectivisation.
S.-turning an adjective into a noun
Adj.-turning a noun into an adjective
Subs. divide into: 1)full 2)partial
The adjectivids fall into 2 main grammatical subgroups:
19. The non-finite forms of the verb, category of verbals
There are four non-finite forms of the verb in English: the infinitive (to take), the gerund (taking), participle I (taking), participle II (taken).
The main verbal feature of the infinitive and participles
I and II is that it can be used as part of analytical verbal
forms (is standing, is built, have come, will do, etc.)
Lexically non-finites
do not differ from finite forms. Grammatically the difference between
the two types of forms lies in the fact that non-finites may denote
a secondary action or a process related to that expressed by the finite
verb.
Non-finites possess the verb categories of voice, perfect,
and aspect. They lack the categories of person, number,
mood, and tense.
20.Different approaches to classification of parts of speech.
All the words in the vocabulary stock of the language should be organized traditionally. They’re organized into 8 parts of speech. This classification dates back to the ancient times: nouns, pronouns, adjectives, adverbs, verbs, prepositions, conjunctions, and interjections.
Ilysh adds numerals, statives, modal words and particles.
Хаймович и Роговская add articles and response words. When we classify parts of speech, we take into consideration different dimension ex: morphological characters.
H.Sweet:
Syntactic functions:
Classification of O.Jespersen. His theory is between syntax & morphology.
He also analyzes classes from the point of view of their functions in the sentence and phrase.
Here we take his theory of 3 ranges. In any composite denomination of a thing or person we always find that there is one word of supreme importance to which the others are joined as subordinated. The chief word is defined (qualified, modified) by another word, which in its turn may be defined (qualified, modified) by a third word, etc. we are to establish different ranks of words according to their mutual relations as defined or defining.
Words can be of
Russian linguistic tradition developed 3 classification of the base of meaning, form, and function.
21. Noun: morphological characteristics, grammatical meaning, syntactical functions.
– morphological:
• inflected for number and case (with exceptions e.g. uncountable nouns; case
inflection is restricted)
• complex morphological structure e.g. compound and derived nouns - bombshell,
Brightness
Thing,quality abstract notion,action(arrival), period of time, mass notion(water)
- Semantic:
• refer to concrete entities in the external world
• can denote qualities and states
• function as agent or recipient in clauses
22.The numeral: its definition, types of numerals, substativisation.The numeral is a part of speech which indicates number or the order of persons and things in a series.
Numerals are united by their semantics only. They have neither morphologic nor syntactic features.
All numerals are subdivided into 1)cardinal and 2)ordinal. Both subclasses can perform equally well the functions peculiar of nouns and adjectives.
Numerals possess a specific word-building system: suffixes -teen, -ty, -th. Some of them are easily substantivized and treated as nouns.
23. Basic morphological notion: word, morpheme.
Blokh: Noun is the main nominative part of speech, effecting nomination of the fullest value within the framework of the notional division of lexicon.
Morpheme – is one of the central notions of grammatical theory, without which no serious attempt at grammatical study can be made. Morpheme is the smallest meaningful unit of the language.
24. Types of one-member sentences
One member sentences fall into nominal ( for example – summer) and verbal ( for example – to keep silence)
Nominal sentences are those in which the principal part is expressed by a noun. They state the existence of the things expressed by them.
Verbal sentences are those in which the principal part is expressed by a non-finite form of the verb, either an infinitive or a gerund. Infinitive and gerundial one-member sentences are mostly used to describe different emotional perceptions of reality.
25.Syntactical problems of interpretation.
Programmatically it is useful to distinguish several stages in the development of a theory
dealing with these processes of sentence interpretation: (1) determining the nature of the information a listener must extract from the sentences of a discourse, (2) formulating explicit hypotheses as to how that information might be obtained, and (3) evaluating those hypotheses with the available evidence to ascertain which of potentially many equivalent processes are in fact employed by listeners. Relevant evidence would include the listener’s inferential performance as mentioned above, data relevant to the actual on-line processing of sentences, studies of language
development, and even results of neurological investigations
26.Principle parts of sentence, predicate.
The subject and the predicate constitute the backbone of the sentence: without them the sentence would not exist at all, whereas all other parts may or may not be there, and if they are there, they serve to define or modify either the subject or the predicate, or each other.
The subject is one of the 2 main parts of the sentence:
The predicate is one of the 2 main parts of the sentence:
Types of predicate:
Predicates may be classified in 2 ways, one of which is based on their structure (simple or compound), and the other on their morphological characteristics (verbal or nominal).
Structural classification:
Morphological classification:
27. Types of relations in the sentence: direct and indirect links.
Objects fall into classes: direct objects, and non-prepositional indirect objects.
A direct object answers the question "What?"
while an indirect object answers the question "To whom?" or "For whom?".
An indirect object is the recipient of the direct object, or an otherwise affected participant in the event. There must be a direct object for an indirect object to be placed in a sentence.
Some examples:
28. Different approaches to classification of sentences.
From the point of view of their structure, sentences can be:
1. Simple or composite (compound and complex).
2. Complete or incomplete (elliptical).
3. Two-member (double-nucleus) or one-member (single-nucleus).
These three classifications are based on different approaches to the structural organisation of sentences and reflect its different aspects.
The difference between the simple sentence and the composite sentence lies in the fact that the former contains only one subject-predicate unit and the latter more than one. Subject-predicate units that form composite sentences are called clauses.
- Still waters run deep. (one subject-predicate unit)
-You can take a horse to the water, but you cannot make him drink, (two subject-predicate units, or two
clauses)
Two-member sentences:
The magpie flew off.
We are going to my house now.
One-member sentences:
An old park.
Mid-summer.
Low tide, dusty water.
In a complete sentence both the principal positions are filled with word-forms.
When did you arrive?
I came straight here.
In an incomplete sentence one or both of the main positions are not filled, but can be easily supplied as it is clear from the context what is missing.
Cheerful, aren’t you?
Ready?
29.Verb: grammatical meaning, distribution, morphological characteristics.
Process, action, state
Distribution:
V+N cross the road
V+Vinf want to go home
N+V a book to read
V+Adv run quickly
V+Adj taste bitter
V+Gerund stop talking
V+prep+N 100 for the sun
Morph.: tense person, time correlation, voice active, passive
30.Secondary parts of sentence, object.
Objects are divided into direct, indirect and prepositional.